Cellular respiration occurs in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, with most reactions taking place in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and in the mitochondria of eukaryotes. There are three main stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport/oxidative phosphorylation.

Typical eukaryotic cell

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration For life to continue on Earth, two conditions must be met. First, matter must be continuously cycled. With few exceptions, the number of atoms on Earth is unchanging. Although the atoms may be rearranged into new molecules, matter is. Cellular Respiration is the process by which living organisms produce energy. Learn Cellular Respiration Equation, Types, Stages & Products via diagrams here. Every biological machine needs specific parts and fuel in order to function and also require well-engineered parts and good energy source in order to work. Model the products (substances made) in cellular respiration by rearranging the beads in the box on the left side of the Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration sheet. Complete Column 2 in the Cellular Respiration table on the previous page by indicating the number of beads needed to make models of the products of cellular respiration.

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.^[1] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called 'high-energy' bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermicredox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although cellular respiration is technically a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions.

Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O₂). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.

1Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration[edit]

Aerobic respiration (red arrows) is the main means by which both fungi and animals utilize chemical energy in the form of organic compounds that were previously created through photosynthesis (green arrow).

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O₂) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH₂

Simplified reaction:	C₆H₁₂O₆ (s) + 6 O₂ (g) → 6 CO₂ (g) + 6 H₂O (l) + heat
	ΔG = −2880 kJ per mol of C₆H₁₂O₆

The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously. Bulleh shah pdf urdu.

The potential of NADH and FADH₂ is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the 'terminal electron acceptor'. Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).^[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.^[2]

Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

Glycolysis[edit]

Out of the cytoplasm it goes into the Krebs cycle with the acetyl CoA. It then mixes with CO₂ and makes 2 ATP, NADH, and FADH. From there the NADH and FADH go into the NADH reductase, which produces the enzyme. The NADH pulls the enzyme's electrons to send through the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain pulls H⁺ ions through the chain. From the electron transport chain, the released hydrogen ions make ADP for an end result of 32 ATP. O₂ attracts itself to the left over electron to make water. Lastly, ATP leaves through the ATP channel and out of the mitochondria.

Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. Glycolysis can be literally translated as 'sugar splitting'^[3], which functions with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. Swat softball team washington state. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:

Glucose + 2 NAD⁺ + 2 P_i + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H⁺ + 2 H₂O + heat

Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-biphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.

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Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate[edit]

Pyruvate is oxidized to ac

Cellular Respiration Diagram Pdf